ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The architectural man of this period include the beautiful temples built by Chandellas of Bundelkhand at Khajuraho (Madhya PradE in the 10th-11th centuries and the Jaina and Hindu temI of the Chalukyas of Gujarat such as the Vimala, Tejp Vastupala, and the Dilwara temples at Mt. Abu in Rajastll The Khajuraho temples dedicated to Jaina, Vishnu c Siva pontiffs stand on high terraces and typically compl a shrine room, an assembly hall and an entrance port They have sculptures both inside and outside. They beautifully carved, domed ceilings. The school of archi: ture of ChalukYas or Solankis flourished from the 11tll 13th centuries in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Their Hindu c Jaina temples were built on high platforms, an outstand feature being the minute and lovely decorations. Ami their other great monuments are the gateway at Dhal the Jayastambha at Chit tor (12th century) and Kirtistambha of Rma Kumbha at Chittor (12th century The sculpture of the Pala school has unique feat\: such as a fine finish: figures decorated and polished well as to appear as if they were made of metal rather tl stone.
In painting, important schools of miniature art were Pala school of Bengal and its counterpart, the Apabhrar school in western India that continued to flourish upto
15th century. The Pala illustrations on palm leaf, pa manuscripts and wooden covers were inspired by Vajray. Buddhism and characterised by sinuous lines, subd\ tones and simple compositions. The earlier phase ofApabhramsa school, traced to roughly the 11 th-13th CeI1 ries, is characterised by illustrated manuscripts in palm 1,
Saturday, November 28, 2009
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
LITERATURE Regional languages developed during the period, accompanying the formation of what may be called sub-national units such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bengal, and so on. Regional scripts developed while earlier the same script had predominated in large parts of northern India. The beginnings of Maithili, Oriya, Bengali, and Assamese are traceable in Buddhist writings. Oriya can be traced to the eighth or ninth century though literary works of merit in Oriya began appearing only in the 13th century. Bengali emerged as a separate language around AD 1000. Bengali songs of the llth-12th centuries mark the beginnings of Bengali literature. Gujarati evolved frotn a dialect of the Gurjara Apabhramsa and reached a distinctive form by the 12th century. The orig41 of Hindi has been traced to this period by scholars. Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Rasa is an important work that marks the beginning of Hindi literature. The Kashmiri language separated itself from its Apabhramsa parentage around the 10th century. It was around the 11th century that Urdu began to emerge. It emerged from the same Khari Boli that, gave rise to Hi and owed heavily to both Turkish and Persian-which ca to India with the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids. Mahn of Ghazni patronised poets such as Firdausi, the authoJ Shahnama. Al-beruni, who came to India with him, WI the Tahqiq-i-Hind depicting the Indian people's thoughts j customs.
Sanskrit literature also flourished in the period, es dally in the regions of Rajasthan and Orissa. Bhoja (I century) is recognised as one of the greats among cri in Sanskrit. Some famous works are Somadev Kathasaritasagara, Bilhana's Vikramankndevacharita, Kalhar Rajatarangini and Jayadeva's Gita Gavinda.
LITERATURE Regional languages developed during the period, accompanying the formation of what may be called sub-national units such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bengal, and so on. Regional scripts developed while earlier the same script had predominated in large parts of northern India. The beginnings of Maithili, Oriya, Bengali, and Assamese are traceable in Buddhist writings. Oriya can be traced to the eighth or ninth century though literary works of merit in Oriya began appearing only in the 13th century. Bengali emerged as a separate language around AD 1000. Bengali songs of the llth-12th centuries mark the beginnings of Bengali literature. Gujarati evolved frotn a dialect of the Gurjara Apabhramsa and reached a distinctive form by the 12th century. The orig41 of Hindi has been traced to this period by scholars. Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Rasa is an important work that marks the beginning of Hindi literature. The Kashmiri language separated itself from its Apabhramsa parentage around the 10th century. It was around the 11th century that Urdu began to emerge. It emerged from the same Khari Boli that, gave rise to Hi and owed heavily to both Turkish and Persian-which ca to India with the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids. Mahn of Ghazni patronised poets such as Firdausi, the authoJ Shahnama. Al-beruni, who came to India with him, WI the Tahqiq-i-Hind depicting the Indian people's thoughts j customs.
Sanskrit literature also flourished in the period, es dally in the regions of Rajasthan and Orissa. Bhoja (I century) is recognised as one of the greats among cri in Sanskrit. Some famous works are Somadev Kathasaritasagara, Bilhana's Vikramankndevacharita, Kalhar Rajatarangini and Jayadeva's Gita Gavinda.
MUHAMMAD OF GHUR
MUHAMMAD OF GHUR
Shihab-ud-din (later Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, or Muhammad of Ghur) was a great conqueror. After setting up his government in Ghazni (AD 1173) he directed his expeditions farther towards India. In 1175, he captured Multan and then Sindh. Three years later, he tried to penetrate into Gujarat but found the local Rajputs too strong for him. He was defeated by Mularaja, of Anhilwara and was repulsed with heavy loss in 1178. By 1182, however, the whole of Sindh was subdued. The next object of his attention was Lahore then ruled by Khusrau Malik, the last prince of the house of Ghazni. He captured Lahore, deposed Khusrau Malik, and annexed the Punjab to his dominions.
The Muslim rivals having been disposed of, Muhammad Ghur next turned to the conquest of the Hindu kingdoms. The Hindu princes, realising the gravity of the situation, formed a confederacy and placed the allied army under the command of Prithviraj III. Prithviraj defeated the invading army at Tarain near Thaneswar in 1191. But in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraj was defeated, captured and executed. Muhammad followed tip his success by conquering Ajmer. He then returned to Ghazni leaving the conduct of the Indian campaigns to his trusty slave, Qutbud-din Aibak. Qutb-ud-din captured Delhi, Meerut, Ranthambhor and Koil in 1193, and then advanced towards Banaras. The Sultan in the meantime returned from Ghazni and defeated Raja Jaichandra (or Jaichand) of Kanauj in the battle of Chandwar. Gwalior fell in 1196 and next fell Anhilwara. With the reduction of Kalanjar in 1203, the conquest of upper India was complete. By the time of Muhammad's assassination in 1206, Bihar and Bengal were also conquered.
Causes of the defeat of Indian rulers by the Turks
Political causes: (i) disunity among the rulers; (ii)
absence of powerful central authority; (ill) neglect of the frontiers; (iv) feudalism; (v) absence of political insight.
Social causes: (i) Hinduism's emphasis on fragmentation of society as against Islam which preached brotherhood among all-low or high; (ii) high position given to slaves by the Muslim rulers.
Religious causes: (i) Invaders' Spirit of jihnd meanit1g a crusade to protect and spread Islam; (ii) fragmented Hindu religon with many sects as against unitary Islam.
Military causes: (i) absence of appropriate military organisation; (ii) defensive attitude of Indian rulers at war; (ill) absence of military leadership; (iv) overdependence of Indian rulers on elephants and swords against Turks' use of superior horses, armoured horsemen, and mounted archers.
Shihab-ud-din (later Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, or Muhammad of Ghur) was a great conqueror. After setting up his government in Ghazni (AD 1173) he directed his expeditions farther towards India. In 1175, he captured Multan and then Sindh. Three years later, he tried to penetrate into Gujarat but found the local Rajputs too strong for him. He was defeated by Mularaja, of Anhilwara and was repulsed with heavy loss in 1178. By 1182, however, the whole of Sindh was subdued. The next object of his attention was Lahore then ruled by Khusrau Malik, the last prince of the house of Ghazni. He captured Lahore, deposed Khusrau Malik, and annexed the Punjab to his dominions.
The Muslim rivals having been disposed of, Muhammad Ghur next turned to the conquest of the Hindu kingdoms. The Hindu princes, realising the gravity of the situation, formed a confederacy and placed the allied army under the command of Prithviraj III. Prithviraj defeated the invading army at Tarain near Thaneswar in 1191. But in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraj was defeated, captured and executed. Muhammad followed tip his success by conquering Ajmer. He then returned to Ghazni leaving the conduct of the Indian campaigns to his trusty slave, Qutbud-din Aibak. Qutb-ud-din captured Delhi, Meerut, Ranthambhor and Koil in 1193, and then advanced towards Banaras. The Sultan in the meantime returned from Ghazni and defeated Raja Jaichandra (or Jaichand) of Kanauj in the battle of Chandwar. Gwalior fell in 1196 and next fell Anhilwara. With the reduction of Kalanjar in 1203, the conquest of upper India was complete. By the time of Muhammad's assassination in 1206, Bihar and Bengal were also conquered.
Causes of the defeat of Indian rulers by the Turks
Political causes: (i) disunity among the rulers; (ii)
absence of powerful central authority; (ill) neglect of the frontiers; (iv) feudalism; (v) absence of political insight.
Social causes: (i) Hinduism's emphasis on fragmentation of society as against Islam which preached brotherhood among all-low or high; (ii) high position given to slaves by the Muslim rulers.
Religious causes: (i) Invaders' Spirit of jihnd meanit1g a crusade to protect and spread Islam; (ii) fragmented Hindu religon with many sects as against unitary Islam.
Military causes: (i) absence of appropriate military organisation; (ii) defensive attitude of Indian rulers at war; (ill) absence of military leadership; (iv) overdependence of Indian rulers on elephants and swords against Turks' use of superior horses, armoured horsemen, and mounted archers.
THE GHAZNAVIDS
THE GHAZNAVIDS
An adventurer Alptigin founded the principality of Ghazni - in AD 962. After his death in 977 his slave and son-in-law, Subuktigin, succeeded him. His policy of conquest brought him in conflict with the Shaiya dynasty. He defeated its ruler, Jaipal, twice and thus extended the kingdom beyond the Indus. After a reign of 20 years, Subuktigin died in 997 and was succeeded by his son Mahmud, a brilliant general and a mighty conqueror. He led as many as 17 expeditions into India during the years 1000-1206.
Out of these the one against the temple of Somnath in 1025 was the most important as it gave Mahmud a vast treasure. Mahmud did not make any systematic effort to capture Indian territories, except for that held by the Shaiya dynasty. However, Mahmud may be seen as the founder of Turkish rule in India to the extent that his conquests opened India to conquest from the north-west. The Yamini dynasty to which Subuktigin and his successors belonged was soon over
thrown by Muhammad of Ghur (at the close of the 12th century).
The decline of Ghazni rule in India may be attributed
to:
(i) Little or no attention was paid to internal strength
ening and organisation of the empire.
(ii) Excess use was made of military power in external
security.
(iii) Mahmud Ghazni had incompetent successors.
(iv) Lack of definite and universal law relating to
succession to throne resulted in constant fight among the successors of Mahmud.
(v) Ala-ud-din Hussain, a Gaud king, attacked Ghazni in 1155. Khusro Malik, the last Ghazni ruler, was killed by
Muhammad Ghur in 1192.
(vi) There was a lack of control over the army. (vii) There was no new source of income.
Mahmud Ghazni's invasion had some significance for
Indian history.
(i) It exposed India's military weakness.
(ii) It exposed the political disunity of India.
(iii) It weakened the economic condition of India
because Mahmud carried huge wealth out of India.
(iv) It caused a great setback to Indian art and sculpture
due to destruction of idols, temples and beautiful palaces.
(v) It opened India to foreign attacks.
(vi) It provided Islam a foothold in India.
(vii) Mahmud's attack upon Hindu temples brought a
feeling of hatred and fear among the Hindus towards the Muslims.
(viii) Arrival of Muslim saints, called the Sufis, pro
vided impetus to greater Hindu-Muslim interaction.
(ix) The accounts of Al-beruni, who accompanied Mahmud to India, provide very useful information about contemporary Indian life.
An adventurer Alptigin founded the principality of Ghazni - in AD 962. After his death in 977 his slave and son-in-law, Subuktigin, succeeded him. His policy of conquest brought him in conflict with the Shaiya dynasty. He defeated its ruler, Jaipal, twice and thus extended the kingdom beyond the Indus. After a reign of 20 years, Subuktigin died in 997 and was succeeded by his son Mahmud, a brilliant general and a mighty conqueror. He led as many as 17 expeditions into India during the years 1000-1206.
Out of these the one against the temple of Somnath in 1025 was the most important as it gave Mahmud a vast treasure. Mahmud did not make any systematic effort to capture Indian territories, except for that held by the Shaiya dynasty. However, Mahmud may be seen as the founder of Turkish rule in India to the extent that his conquests opened India to conquest from the north-west. The Yamini dynasty to which Subuktigin and his successors belonged was soon over
thrown by Muhammad of Ghur (at the close of the 12th century).
The decline of Ghazni rule in India may be attributed
to:
(i) Little or no attention was paid to internal strength
ening and organisation of the empire.
(ii) Excess use was made of military power in external
security.
(iii) Mahmud Ghazni had incompetent successors.
(iv) Lack of definite and universal law relating to
succession to throne resulted in constant fight among the successors of Mahmud.
(v) Ala-ud-din Hussain, a Gaud king, attacked Ghazni in 1155. Khusro Malik, the last Ghazni ruler, was killed by
Muhammad Ghur in 1192.
(vi) There was a lack of control over the army. (vii) There was no new source of income.
Mahmud Ghazni's invasion had some significance for
Indian history.
(i) It exposed India's military weakness.
(ii) It exposed the political disunity of India.
(iii) It weakened the economic condition of India
because Mahmud carried huge wealth out of India.
(iv) It caused a great setback to Indian art and sculpture
due to destruction of idols, temples and beautiful palaces.
(v) It opened India to foreign attacks.
(vi) It provided Islam a foothold in India.
(vii) Mahmud's attack upon Hindu temples brought a
feeling of hatred and fear among the Hindus towards the Muslims.
(viii) Arrival of Muslim saints, called the Sufis, pro
vided impetus to greater Hindu-Muslim interaction.
(ix) The accounts of Al-beruni, who accompanied Mahmud to India, provide very useful information about contemporary Indian life.
IMPACT OF ARAB RULE IN SINDH
IMPACT OF ARAB RULE IN SINDH Politically, tl1 Arabs' Sindh conquest is considered insignificant even from the point of view of growth of Islam in India. Their victory did not leave any impact on the monarchial character of Indian polity. However, it succeeded in converting the Sindh population to Islam, albeit on a very limited and temporary scale.
The Arabs did not make any permanent impact on Indian social system. However, it would be wrong to say that the Arabs' Sindh conquest did not make any impact at all on the Indian society. Its first impact was that it laid the foundation of Islam in India. The formal slavery system was introduced into India by the Arabs. The earliest Muslim settlements in India were established during Arab rule.
Sanskrit works on astronomy and medicine were translated into Arabic. The Quran was translated into Sindhi. Arab life was adjusted to Sindhi pattern.
The Arab rule in Sindh strengthened Arab trade and encouraged move Arabs to settle down on the east coast. The Sindhi tanners were trained in the art of tanning soft leather by the Arab leather workers. As a result of this, Sindhi leather fetched a higher- price in foreign markets.
The Arabs did not make any permanent impact on Indian social system. However, it would be wrong to say that the Arabs' Sindh conquest did not make any impact at all on the Indian society. Its first impact was that it laid the foundation of Islam in India. The formal slavery system was introduced into India by the Arabs. The earliest Muslim settlements in India were established during Arab rule.
Sanskrit works on astronomy and medicine were translated into Arabic. The Quran was translated into Sindhi. Arab life was adjusted to Sindhi pattern.
The Arab rule in Sindh strengthened Arab trade and encouraged move Arabs to settle down on the east coast. The Sindhi tanners were trained in the art of tanning soft leather by the Arab leather workers. As a result of this, Sindhi leather fetched a higher- price in foreign markets.
WHY ARABS FAILED TO BUILD A PERMANENT EMPIRE IN INDIA
WHY ARABS FAILED TO BUILD A PERMANENT EMPIRE IN INDIA The conquest of Sindh by the Arabs" however, a 'triumph without any results'. Not only did ~ fail to extend their dominions further, they could not e' retain their hold on Sindh. The reasons were:
(i) Imprisonment of Muhammad-bin-Qasim The E khalifa who succeeded Hajjaj-the patron of MuhaIl1II\ bin-Qasim-recalled and imprisoned Qasim. It proved be a great blow to the Sindh administration.
(i.i) New khalifa's attitude towards Sindh The n khalifa did not visualise any material gain from the de~ land of Sindh and hence put a break on military help Sindh.
(iii) Fight over Khilafat (Caliphate) As a result breaking out of a mutual struggle for occupying the Sj
of Khilafat, the Arab attention was diverted from Sine
(iv) Feeling of cultural inferiority among the Ara The Arabs had a feeling of inferiority complex in the fe of India's cultural advancement. This dampened the spir of the Arabs for further military occupation.
(v) Distance from Baghdad Long distance betw~ Sindh and Baghdad (the ultimate source of power for SiT\( administration under the Arabs) and lack of comrnunicatic and transport did not encourage further battles.
(vi) Bravery and heroism of Indian rulers At that tin provinces in India were being ruled by various Rajpl dynasties who were famous for their bravery and heroisI This discouraged the Arabs from engaging in wars with tt Indian rulers.
(i) Imprisonment of Muhammad-bin-Qasim The E khalifa who succeeded Hajjaj-the patron of MuhaIl1II\ bin-Qasim-recalled and imprisoned Qasim. It proved be a great blow to the Sindh administration.
(i.i) New khalifa's attitude towards Sindh The n khalifa did not visualise any material gain from the de~ land of Sindh and hence put a break on military help Sindh.
(iii) Fight over Khilafat (Caliphate) As a result breaking out of a mutual struggle for occupying the Sj
of Khilafat, the Arab attention was diverted from Sine
(iv) Feeling of cultural inferiority among the Ara The Arabs had a feeling of inferiority complex in the fe of India's cultural advancement. This dampened the spir of the Arabs for further military occupation.
(v) Distance from Baghdad Long distance betw~ Sindh and Baghdad (the ultimate source of power for SiT\( administration under the Arabs) and lack of comrnunicatic and transport did not encourage further battles.
(vi) Bravery and heroism of Indian rulers At that tin provinces in India were being ruled by various Rajpl dynasties who were famous for their bravery and heroisI This discouraged the Arabs from engaging in wars with tt Indian rulers.
ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH
ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH
As early as AD 637 Arabs started sending expeditions the western coast of India. In the opening years of the e\ century AD, the King of Ceylon had sent some ships t< Khalifa (Caliph) Walid. These ships were plundere< pirates near Debal, a port in Sindh. At that time, one D. a Hindu raja, ruled over Sindh. AI-Hajjaj, the govern< Basra, demanded compensation, but Dahir refused to it. Hajjaj sent an expedition against Dahir. After expeditions failed, in AD 712 he sent another expedition.. time under his nephew and son-in-law, MuhammadQasim. Muhammad-bin-Qasim in a very short time, quered Debal by slaying Dahir. He then conqw Brahmanabad. After this he conquered Multan. This p tically made him the ruler of the whole of Sindh. But brilliant career came to a sad end when he was put to dl by the Khalifa. Sindh was under the Arabs for 200 YE An efficient administration was provided by them. It divided into a number of districts (iqtas) which were over to the Arab military officers on condition of milij service. The Arabs followed a tolerant religious p,\ Those who paid the poll-tax or jaziya were exempted fJ embracing Islam and were known as zimmis.
As early as AD 637 Arabs started sending expeditions the western coast of India. In the opening years of the e\ century AD, the King of Ceylon had sent some ships t< Khalifa (Caliph) Walid. These ships were plundere< pirates near Debal, a port in Sindh. At that time, one D. a Hindu raja, ruled over Sindh. AI-Hajjaj, the govern< Basra, demanded compensation, but Dahir refused to it. Hajjaj sent an expedition against Dahir. After expeditions failed, in AD 712 he sent another expedition.. time under his nephew and son-in-law, MuhammadQasim. Muhammad-bin-Qasim in a very short time, quered Debal by slaying Dahir. He then conqw Brahmanabad. After this he conquered Multan. This p tically made him the ruler of the whole of Sindh. But brilliant career came to a sad end when he was put to dl by the Khalifa. Sindh was under the Arabs for 200 YE An efficient administration was provided by them. It divided into a number of districts (iqtas) which were over to the Arab military officers on condition of milij service. The Arabs followed a tolerant religious p,\ Those who paid the poll-tax or jaziya were exempted fJ embracing Islam and were known as zimmis.
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