ART AND ARCHITECTURE

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The architectural man of this period include the beautiful temples built by Chandellas of Bundelkhand at Khajuraho (Madhya PradE in the 10th-11th centuries and the Jaina and Hindu temI of the Chalukyas of Gujarat such as the Vimala, Tejp Vastupala, and the Dilwara temples at Mt. Abu in Rajastll The Khajuraho temples dedicated to Jaina, Vishnu c Siva pontiffs stand on high terraces and typically compl a shrine room, an assembly hall and an entrance port They have sculptures both inside and outside. They beautifully carved, domed ceilings. The school of archi: ture of ChalukYas or Solankis flourished from the 11tll 13th centuries in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Their Hindu c Jaina temples were built on high platforms, an outstand feature being the minute and lovely decorations. Ami their other great monuments are the gateway at Dhal the Jayastambha at Chit tor (12th century) and Kirtistambha of Rma Kumbha at Chittor (12th century The sculpture of the Pala school has unique feat\: such as a fine finish: figures decorated and polished well as to appear as if they were made of metal rather tl stone.

In painting, important schools of miniature art were Pala school of Bengal and its counterpart, the Apabhrar school in western India that continued to flourish upto
15th century. The Pala illustrations on palm leaf, pa manuscripts and wooden covers were inspired by Vajray. Buddhism and characterised by sinuous lines, subd\ tones and simple compositions. The earlier phase ofApabhramsa school, traced to roughly the 11 th-13th CeI1 ries, is characterised by illustrated manuscripts in palm 1,

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

LITERATURE Regional languages developed during the period, accompanying the formation of what may be called sub-national units such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bengal, and so on. Regional scripts developed while earlier the same script had predominated in large parts of northern India. The beginnings of Maithili, Oriya, Bengali, and Assamese are traceable in Buddhist writings. Oriya can be traced to the eighth or ninth century though literary works of merit in Oriya began appearing only in the 13th century. Bengali emerged as a separate language around AD 1000. Bengali songs of the llth-12th centuries mark the beginnings of Bengali literature. Gujarati evolved frotn a dialect of the Gurjara Apabhramsa and reached a distinctive form by the 12th century. The orig41 of Hindi has been traced to this period by scholars. Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Rasa is an important work that marks the beginning of Hindi litera­ture. The Kashmiri language separated itself from its Apabhramsa parentage around the 10th century. It was around the 11th century that Urdu began to emerge. It emerged from the same Khari Boli that, gave rise to Hi and owed heavily to both Turkish and Persian-which ca to India with the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids. Mahn of Ghazni patronised poets such as Firdausi, the authoJ Shahnama. Al-beruni, who came to India with him, WI the Tahqiq-i-Hind depicting the Indian people's thoughts j customs.

Sanskrit literature also flourished in the period, es dally in the regions of Rajasthan and Orissa. Bhoja (I century) is recognised as one of the greats among cri in Sanskrit. Some famous works are Somadev Kathasaritasagara, Bilhana's Vikramankndevacharita, Kalhar Rajatarangini and Jayadeva's Gita Gavinda.

MUHAMMAD OF GHUR

MUHAMMAD OF GHUR

Shihab-ud-din (later Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, or Muhammad of Ghur) was a great conqueror. After setting up his government in Ghazni (AD 1173) he directed his expeditions farther towards India. In 1175, he captured Multan and then Sindh. Three years later, he tried to penetrate into Gujarat but found the local Rajputs too strong for him. He was defeated by Mularaja, of Anhilwara and was repulsed with heavy loss in 1178. By 1182, however, the whole of Sindh was subdued. The next object of his attention was Lahore then ruled by Khusrau Malik, the last prince of the house of Ghazni. He captured Lahore, deposed Khusrau Malik, and annexed the Punjab to his dominions.

The Muslim rivals having been disposed of, Muhammad Ghur next turned to the conquest of the Hindu kingdoms. The Hindu princes, realising the gravity of the situation, formed a confederacy and placed the allied army under the command of Prithviraj III. Prithviraj defeated the invading army at Tarain near Thaneswar in 1191. But in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraj was defeated, captured and executed. Muhammad followed tip his success by conquering Ajmer. He then returned to Ghazni leaving the conduct of the Indian campaigns to his trusty slave, Qutb­ud-din Aibak. Qutb-ud-din captured Delhi, Meerut, Ranthambhor and Koil in 1193, and then advanced towards Banaras. The Sultan in the meantime returned from Ghazni and defeated Raja Jaichandra (or Jaichand) of Kanauj in the battle of Chandwar. Gwalior fell in 1196 and next fell Anhilwara. With the reduction of Kalanjar in 1203, the conquest of upper India was complete. By the time of Muhammad's assassination in 1206, Bihar and Bengal were also conquered.

Causes of the defeat of Indian rulers by the Turks
Political causes: (i) disunity among the rulers; (ii)
absence of powerful central authority; (ill) neglect of the frontiers; (iv) feudalism; (v) absence of political insight.
Social causes: (i) Hinduism's emphasis on fragmenta­tion of society as against Islam which preached brotherhood among all-low or high; (ii) high position given to slaves by the Muslim rulers.
Religious causes: (i) Invaders' Spirit of jihnd meanit1g a crusade to protect and spread Islam; (ii) fragmented Hindu religon with many sects as against unitary Islam.
Military causes: (i) absence of appropriate military organisation; (ii) defensive attitude of Indian rulers at war; (ill) absence of military leadership; (iv) overdependence of Indian rulers on elephants and swords against Turks' use of superior horses, armoured horsemen, and mounted archers.

THE GHAZNAVIDS

THE GHAZNAVIDS

An adventurer Alptigin founded the principality of Ghazni - in AD 962. After his death in 977 his slave and son-in-law, Subuktigin, succeeded him. His policy of conquest brought him in conflict with the Shaiya dynasty. He defeated its ruler, Jaipal, twice and thus extended the kingdom beyond the Indus. After a reign of 20 years, Subuktigin died in 997 and was succeeded by his son Mahmud, a brilliant general and a mighty conqueror. He led as many as 17 expeditions into India during the years 1000-1206.

Out of these the one against the temple of Somnath in 1025 was the most important as it gave Mahmud a vast treasure. Mahmud did not make any systematic effort to capture Indian territories, except for that held by the Shaiya dynasty. However, Mahmud may be seen as the founder of Turkish rule in India to the extent that his conquests opened India to conquest from the north-west. The Yamini dynasty to which Subuktigin and his successors belonged was soon over­
thrown by Muhammad of Ghur (at the close of the 12th century).

The decline of Ghazni rule in India may be attributed
to:
(i) Little or no attention was paid to internal strength­
ening and organisation of the empire.
(ii) Excess use was made of military power in external
security.
(iii) Mahmud Ghazni had incompetent successors.
(iv) Lack of definite and universal law relating to
succession to throne resulted in constant fight among the successors of Mahmud.
(v) Ala-ud-din Hussain, a Gaud king, attacked Ghazni in 1155. Khusro Malik, the last Ghazni ruler, was killed by
Muhammad Ghur in 1192.
(vi) There was a lack of control over the army. (vii) There was no new source of income.
Mahmud Ghazni's invasion had some significance for
Indian history.
(i) It exposed India's military weakness.
(ii) It exposed the political disunity of India.
(iii) It weakened the economic condition of India
because Mahmud carried huge wealth out of India.
(iv) It caused a great setback to Indian art and sculpture
due to destruction of idols, temples and beautiful palaces.
(v) It opened India to foreign attacks.
(vi) It provided Islam a foothold in India.
(vii) Mahmud's attack upon Hindu temples brought a
feeling of hatred and fear among the Hindus towards the Muslims.
(viii) Arrival of Muslim saints, called the Sufis, pro­
vided impetus to greater Hindu-Muslim interaction.
(ix) The accounts of Al-beruni, who accompanied Mahmud to India, provide very useful information about contemporary Indian life.

IMPACT OF ARAB RULE IN SINDH

IMPACT OF ARAB RULE IN SINDH Politically, tl1 Arabs' Sindh conquest is considered insignificant even from the point of view of growth of Islam in India. Their victory did not leave any impact on the monarchial character of Indian polity. However, it succeeded in converting the Sindh population to Islam, albeit on a very limited and temporary scale.

The Arabs did not make any permanent impact on Indian social system. However, it would be wrong to say that the Arabs' Sindh conquest did not make any impact at all on the Indian society. Its first impact was that it laid the foundation of Islam in India. The formal slavery system was introduced into India by the Arabs. The earliest Muslim settlements in India were established during Arab rule.

Sanskrit works on astronomy and medicine were trans­lated into Arabic. The Quran was translated into Sindhi. Arab life was adjusted to Sindhi pattern.

The Arab rule in Sindh strengthened Arab trade and encouraged move Arabs to settle down on the east coast. The Sindhi tanners were trained in the art of tanning soft leather by the Arab leather workers. As a result of this, Sindhi leather fetched a higher- price in foreign markets.

WHY ARABS FAILED TO BUILD A PERMANENT EMPIRE IN INDIA

WHY ARABS FAILED TO BUILD A PERMANENT EMPIRE IN INDIA The conquest of Sindh by the Arabs" however, a 'triumph without any results'. Not only did ~ fail to extend their dominions further, they could not e' retain their hold on Sindh. The reasons were:
(i) Imprisonment of Muhammad-bin-Qasim The E khalifa who succeeded Hajjaj-the patron of MuhaIl1II\ bin-Qasim-recalled and imprisoned Qasim. It proved be a great blow to the Sindh administration.
(i.i) New khalifa's attitude towards Sindh The n khalifa did not visualise any material gain from the de~ land of Sindh and hence put a break on military help Sindh.
(iii) Fight over Khilafat (Caliphate) As a result breaking out of a mutual struggle for occupying the Sj
of Khilafat, the Arab attention was diverted from Sine
(iv) Feeling of cultural inferiority among the Ara The Arabs had a feeling of inferiority complex in the fe of India's cultural advancement. This dampened the spir of the Arabs for further military occupation.
(v) Distance from Baghdad Long distance betw~ Sindh and Baghdad (the ultimate source of power for SiT\( administration under the Arabs) and lack of comrnunicatic and transport did not encourage further battles.
(vi) Bravery and heroism of Indian rulers At that tin provinces in India were being ruled by various Rajpl dynasties who were famous for their bravery and heroisI This discouraged the Arabs from engaging in wars with tt Indian rulers.

ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH

ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH

As early as AD 637 Arabs started sending expeditions the western coast of India. In the opening years of the e\ century AD, the King of Ceylon had sent some ships t< Khalifa (Caliph) Walid. These ships were plundere< pirates near Debal, a port in Sindh. At that time, one D. a Hindu raja, ruled over Sindh. AI-Hajjaj, the govern< Basra, demanded compensation, but Dahir refused to it. Hajjaj sent an expedition against Dahir. After expeditions failed, in AD 712 he sent another expedition.. time under his nephew and son-in-law, Muhammad­Qasim. Muhammad-bin-Qasim in a very short time, quered Debal by slaying Dahir. He then conqw Brahmanabad. After this he conquered Multan. This p tically made him the ruler of the whole of Sindh. But brilliant career came to a sad end when he was put to dl by the Khalifa. Sindh was under the Arabs for 200 YE An efficient administration was provided by them. It divided into a number of districts (iqtas) which were over to the Arab military officers on condition of milij service. The Arabs followed a tolerant religious p,\ Those who paid the poll-tax or jaziya were exempted fJ embracing Islam and were known as zimmis.

POLITICO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

POLITICO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

As already mentioned, northern India and the Deccan fell victim to political fragmentation. Nepal, Assam (Kamarupa), a11.d Kashmir were independent. The hill states of Chamba, Durgara Oammu) and Kulu came into being besides the various Rajput states already discussed above.

Feudalism emerged with the growing practice of rulers granting land or the revenue from land to officers in lieu of salary-a practice begun by the Satavahanas and Guptas. In time, those who had been given land grants claimed ownership of the land and became equivalent of vassals or feudatories. They displayed their allegiance to a king bv paying him a part of the land revenue, and maintained law and order in their own territory. In time, the surplus wealth of the feudatories and the king was used in conspicuous consumption while the peasants gradually got imp! ished. All the classes of society did not support the.n as a sense of identification with them was lacking. 1 too declined, for which one reason was the collapse 0 Roman empire and the Sassanid empire.

RAJPUT SOCIETY

RAJPUT SOCIETY The basis of Rajput society was that every clan traced its descent from a common ancestor, real or imaginary. The clans generally dominated a compact territory. Attachment to land, family and honour was a characteristic of the Rajputs. The Rajput organisation of society had both advantages and disadvantages. The advan­tage was the sense of brotherhood and egalitarianism which prevailed within each clan of the Rajputs. But pride in beionging to a tightly-knit clan also led to all exaggerated sense of honour and the need to protect that honour against slights, real and perceived. Feuds which continued for several generations on the issue of honour merely weak­ened the social and political fabric. Their tendency to form exclusive groups, each one asserting its own supremacy, prevented them from uniting and cooperating in the face of an attack from outside.

THE PARAMARAS

THE PARAMARAS The main branch of the Paramaras comprised descendants of the Rashtrakutas who ruled in Malwa from the early years of the ninth century with their capital at Dhara. The dynasty was founded by Upendra or Krishnaraja. His immediate successors were Sivaka-Harsha and, then, his son Munja. He is known by the names of Amogharvasha, Srivallabha and Utpalaraja as well. He defeated the powerful Chalukyan king, Tailapa II. Bhoja is considered the best of the Paramara rulers. Bhoja's defeat by Jayasimha II, the Chalukya king, extinguished his ambition to control the De<;can shortly before 1019. Nev­ertheless, he succeeded in defeating the King of Chedi. Bhoja is further said to have humbled the lord of Lata (southern Gujarat) and Bhima I of Gujarat. Bhoja passed away during his battle with the Kalachuri king, Lakshmi­Kama.

Bhoja is better known for his scholarly pursuits than for his conquests. The authorship of more than twenty-three books on varied subjects is ascribed to him. He was a patron of art and literature. He patronised scholars like Dhanapala and Urata.

THE CHANDELLAS

THE CHANDELLAS The Chandellas (Chandratreyas) became rulers in southern Bundelkhand under Nannuka early in the ninth century. He ha~ his capital at Kharjuravahaka (modem Khajuraho). His grandson was Jeja or Yanasakti, after whom the kingdom was called Jejabhukti. The dynasty became powerful under the rule of Dhanga in mid-10th century. He declared himself indepen­dent from the Pratiharas and captured the eastern part of their kingdom. He sent help to support the Hindushahi king, Jayapala of Punjab, against Subuktigin.

He was a patron of learning and fine arts and built many temples at Khajuraho. Ganda, the son of Dhanga, was also a capable ruler. He had sent his son Vidyadhar to punish Rajyapala, the Pratihara ruler, who refused to fight Mahmud of Ghazni and fled away. Rajyapala was killed by Vidyadhar. The rule of this dynasty continued till the kingdom was annexed by
Ala-ud-din KhaljL

THE CHAULAKYAS(AN'HILWARA)

THE CHAULAKYAS(AN'HILWARA)

The Chaulakyas or Solankis were rulers of Gujarat and Kathiawar for about three­and-a-half centuries (AD 950­1300). Two branches ruled from Mattamayura and Lata. Of the Gujarat rulers, the earliest king was Mularaja. The next impor­tant ruler was Bhima I, during whose reign Mahmud Ghazni overym Gujarat and plundered the temple of Somnath. But the greatest king of this dynasty was Jayasimha Siddharaja. He adopted the title of Avantinatha after his victory over the Paramaras. He was a patron of learning and the noted Jain scholar, Hemachandra, was at his court. The Turks plundered Gujarat from time to time and temporarily occupied it.

THE GAHADVALAS and THE CHAUHANS

THE GAHADVALAS Chandradeva was the first rule of this dynasty who seized the throne of Kanauj from th Rashtrakuta ruler sometime between AD 1080 and 10~ Another important ruler was Govindachandra who eJ tended the boundaries of his kingdom both by war an diplomacy. The last ruler of this dynasty was Jayachandri The romantic story of his daughter, Sanyogita, and tI1 Chauhan ruler, Prithviraja III, of Ajmer who elope togethe is a subject of controversy.

THE CHAUHANS Of the many independent Rajpl dynasties who ruled in Rajputana, there were the Chauhan or Chahamanas of Sakambari (modem Sambhar, near Ajmer who set up their principality in the eighth century. Earlier feudatories oL the Pratiharas, they procl~imed themselves independent in mid-10th cen­tury. Ajayaraja, who founded the city Ajayameru (Ajmer), was one of the finest rulers of this dy­nasty. Another famous king was Vigraharaja IV (Visaladeva) who probably made extensive con­quests and controlled Delhi after defeating the Tomaras in mid­12th century. He was a poet and a patron of letters. The famous Prithviraja ill or Rai Pithora be­gan his reign from 1177. He defeated the Chandella king, Paramadi. He was hostile to­wards the Gahadavala king, Jayachandra. In his first confron­tation with Muhammad Ghori in 1191 (first battle of Tarain), he defeated Ghori, but in the sec­ond battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraja was defeated and executed. With his death, the Chauhan kingdom was much weakened. It finally became part of the Sultanate of Delhi.

THE RAJPUTS

THE RAJPUTS

The poets of the 14th century mention 'Rajput' as a tril: comprising t~rty-six clans. Some of these played an in portant role in the history of the period under consideratiol Different historians have different views with regar to the origin of the Rajputs. According to Colonel Todd, t}; Rajputs were the offspring of the foreign invaders in Hunas, Sakas and Kushans, who adopted Hinduism an established matrimonial alliances with the Indians. Anothc view is that the Rajputs were descendants of pure Aryan Rajputs believe themselves to be kshatriyas descended frO! the sun or moon families mentioned in the Mahabharatl Some Rajputs profess themselves as belonging to tI1 Agnikula.

This theory was first put forward by Chand Bard, in his book Prithviraj Rasa. According to him, in order t safeguard the Vedic religion a yajna fire was kindled, ou of which four Rajput families, i.e. Chauhans, Chaulakya (Solanki), Paramaras, and Pratiharas sprang. This theory i: rejected by most of the historians. Probably, Rajput was no originally the name of any tribe or class. Some of thl foreigners and Indians, who were very brave and warlikE and probably belonged to royal families, began to be called Rajputs. But gradually, the term lost its original significanc~ of occupation and began to denote a community. It ij significant that the word, 'Rajput', seems to have come int~ common usage after the invasions of the foreigners in the eighth century AD.

SENAS

SENAS

After the Palas, the Senas established an empire in Benge The earliest member of the Sena dynasty was Samanta Sen The greatest ruler of this dynasty was his grandsc Vijayasena. The entire Bengal was united under his rul Vijayasena may be called the real founder of the Ser dynasty. He ruled for about 70 years. 'ijayasena was
devotee of Siva. The poet, Umapatidhara, lived at his coq and composed the famous peopara-prasesti. By the time 4 Lakshmanasena's reign thl kingdom began to disintegral due to internal disruptions. The Muslim ruler, Muhanuna Bakhtyar Khalji, attacked its capital, Nadia, and occupie it. Though Lakshmanasena escaped from there, he could ne regain his lost prestige. He died around AD 1205. Soon tt, dynasty broke up I and gave way to the Devas.

PALA-PRATIHARA-RASHTRAKUTA CONFLICT

PALA-PRATIHARA-RASHTRAKUTA CONFLICT

The struggle for mastery over Kanauj probably started during the rule of Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty. At first he was defeated by the Pratihara ruler, Vatsaraja. But the Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva, defeated Vatsaraja, and Kanauj came within his grip. When he returned to the Deccan, the Pratihara dynasty once again resumed control with the accession of Nagabhatta II who probably occupied Kanauj which later became their permanent capital. He is believed to have defeated Dharmapala, but himself suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta ruler, Govinda III. With the accession of Bhoja, the Pratiharas came into the limelight. The Pala kingdom which had become weak after the death of Devapala was invaded by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha. The Pratihara ruler took advantage of the situation and defeated the Pala king, Narayanapala. Bhoja's successor, Mahendrapala I, conquered Magadha from the Palas as well as a part of north Bengal. His dominions extended to the Arabian Sea and eastern Punjab. In Mahipala's reign, the Rashtrakuta ruler, Indra III, invaded the Pratihara kingdom and inflicted a crushing defeat ( them. This defeat encouraged the feudatory chiefs ar provisional governors to exert their independence. Soon tI Pratihara kingdom broke up into small kingdoms.

Palas

Palas

After the death of Sasanka, almost a century of chaos prevailed in Bengal. In about the middle of the eighth century AD, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its founder was Gopala, who was elected to the throne as he had proved his valour and capability as a leader. He was a Buddhist. He was succeeded by Dharmapala (circa 770-810). He was succeeded by Devapala who was followed by Mahipala I. By this time, the Palas had lost even their ancestral kingdom in Bengal. But Mahipala I succeeded in restoring the lost prestige of his empire. He succeeded in capturing north, west and east Bengal, and in extending his territories upto Banaras in the west. He has thus been rightly called the founder of the second Pala empire. The successors of Mahipala I were weaklings. Thus, by middle of the twelfth century, the Pala power had faded.
The Pal as were patrons of Buddhism. In their reign grew the Tantric sect in Buddhism. Dharmapala founded the university of Vikramasila.

PRATIHARAS

PRATIHARAS

The foundation of one branch of Pratiharas was laid down by Harichandra, a brahman, near modern Jodhpur in the ;niddle of the sixth century AD. The foun­dation of another branch was at Malwa with its capital at Ujjain, and the earliest known king of this branch was Nagabhatta I. He c~me into prominence because of his successful resistance of the Arabs. He fought against the Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga. The next important ruler of the dynasty was Vatsaraja. The greatest king of the dynasty was Bhoja who ascended the throne in or about 836 and assumed the titles Mihira and Adivaraha. He extended his kingdom's boundary to the east and up to the Sindhu in the north. Bhoja was succeeded by Mahendrapala I around 893. In about 912, Mahipala came to the throne. In the reign of his successor, Mahendrapala II, the disintegration of the Pratihara kingdom began and on its ruins arose small independent kingdoms, many of them of Rajput princes.

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE

On the ruins of Harsha's empire two fJwerful kingdoms rose in the north: the Palas in Bengal and the Pratiharas in northern and western India. At about t~e ,~Tl1.e time;the Rashtrakutas were in power in the nortl-t~rn Jeccan. The most striking feature of the period betwet' AD 750 and 1000 was the tripartite struggle between the Pahs, Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Ke.nauj, which had replaced Pataliputra as the symbol of "ower and sover­elgnty following the reign of Harsha. The Rashtrakutas have already been discussed in Chapter 9; now we briefly consider the Palas and Pratiharas.